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| Prime
Radiant Tools: INDIA Data
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India
Information (SOURCE: CIA Factbook)
| Background: |
The Indus Valley
civilization, one of the oldest in the world, goes back at
least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest invaded
about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier inhabitants
created classical Indian culture. Arab incursions starting in
the 8th century and Turkish in 12th were followed by European
traders beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19th
century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually
all Indian lands. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism
under Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence
in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular state
of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war
between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan
becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental
concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan
over Kashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental
degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic strife, all this
despite impressive gains in economic investment and output.
|
| Location: |
Southern Asia,
bordering the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Burma
and Pakistan |
| Geographic coordinates: |
20 00 N, 77 00 E
|
| Area: |
total:
3,287,590 sq km
land: 2,973,190 sq km
water: 314,400 sq km
|
| Area - comparative: |
slightly more than
one-third the size of the US |
| Land boundaries: |
total:
14,103 km
border countries: Bangladesh
4,053 km, Bhutan 605 km, Burma 1,463 km, China 3,380 km, Nepal
1,690 km, Pakistan 2,912 km |
| Maritime claims: |
contiguous
zone: 24 NM
continental shelf:
200 NM or to the edge of the continental margin
exclusive economic zone: 200 NM
territorial sea: 12 NM
|
| Climate: |
varies from tropical
monsoon in south to temperate in north
|
| Terrain: |
upland plain (Deccan
Plateau) in south, flat to rolling plain along the Ganges,
deserts in west, Himalayas in north
|
| Elevation extremes: |
lowest
point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest
point: Kanchenjunga 8,598 m
|
| Natural resources: |
coal (fourth-largest
reserves in the world), iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite,
titanium ore, chromite, natural gas, diamonds, petroleum,
limestone, arable land |
| Land use: |
arable
land: 56%
permanent crops: 1%
permanent pastures: 4%
forests
and woodland: 23%
other: 16%
(1993 est.) |
| Irrigated land: |
535,100 sq km (1995/96
est.) |
| Natural hazards: |
droughts, flash floods,
severe thunderstorms common; earthquakes
|
| Environment - current issues: |
deforestation; soil
erosion; overgrazing; desertification; air pollution from
industrial effluents and vehicle emissions; water pollution
from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides; tap
water is not potable throughout the country; huge and growing
population is overstraining natural resources
|
| Environment - international
agreements: |
party to:
Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living
Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change,
Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test
Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber
83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed,
but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
|
| Geography - note: |
dominates South Asian
subcontinent; near important Indian Ocean trade routes
|
| Population: |
1,029,991,145 (July
2001 est.) |
| Age structure: |
0-14
years: 33.12% (male 175,630,537; female 165,540,672)
15-64 years: 62.2% (male 331,790,850;
female 308,902,864)
65 years and over:
4.68% (male 24,439,022; female 23,687,200) (2001 est.)
|
| Population growth rate: |
1.55% (2001 est.)
|
| Birth rate: |
24.28 births/1,000
population (2001 est.) |
| Death rate: |
8.74 deaths/1,000
population (2001 est.) |
| Net migration rate: |
-0.08 migrant(s)/1,000
population (2001 est.) |
| Sex ratio: |
at birth:
1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.06
male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.07
male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.03
male(s)/female
total population: 1.07
male(s)/female (2001 est.) |
| Infant mortality rate: |
63.19 deaths/1,000 live
births (2001 est.) |
| Life expectancy at birth: |
total
population: 62.86 years
male:
62.22 years
female: 63.53 years (2001
est.) |
| Total fertility rate: |
3.04 children
born/woman (2001 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - adult
prevalence rate: |
0.7% (1999 est.)
|
| HIV/AIDS - people
living with HIV/AIDS: |
3.7 million (1999 est.)
|
| HIV/AIDS -
deaths: |
310,000 (1999 est.)
|
| Nationality: |
noun:
Indian(s)
adjective: Indian
|
| Ethnic
groups: |
Indo-Aryan 72%, Dravidian 25%, Mongoloid
and other 3% (2000) |
| Religions: |
Hindu 81.3%, Muslim 12%, Christian 2.3%,
Sikh 1.9%, other groups including Buddhist, Jain, Parsi 2.5%
(2000) |
| Languages: |
English enjoys associate status but is
the most important language for national, political, and
commercial communication, Hindi the national language and
primary tongue of 30% of the people, Bengali (official),
Telugu (official), Marathi (official), Tamil (official), Urdu
(official), Gujarati (official), Malayalam (official), Kannada
(official), Oriya (official), Punjabi (official), Assamese
(official), Kashmiri (official), Sindhi (official), Sanskrit
(official), Hindustani (a popular variant of Hindi/Urdu spoken
widely throughout northern India)
note:
24 languages each spoken by a million or more persons;
numerous other languages and dialects, for the most part
mutually unintelligible |
| Literacy: |
definition: age 15 and over can
read and write
total
population: 52%
male:
65.5%
female: 37.7% (1995 est.)
|
| Country
name: |
conventional long
form: Republic of India
conventional short
form: India |
| Government
type: |
federal republic
|
| Administrative
divisions: |
28 states and 7 union territories*;
Andaman and Nicobar Islands*, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh*, Chhattisgarh, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli*, Daman and Diu*, Delhi*, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Kerala, Lakshadweep*, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry*, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal |
| Independence: |
15 August 1947 (from UK)
|
| National
holiday: |
Republic Day, 26 January (1950)
|
| Constitution: |
26 January 1950
|
| Legal
system: |
based on English common law; limited
judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction, with reservations |
| Suffrage: |
18 years of age; universal
|
| Executive
branch: |
chief of
state: President Kocheril Raman NARAYANAN (since 25
July 1997); Vice President Krishnan KANT (since 21 August
1997)
head of government: Prime
Minister Atal Behari VAJPAYEE (since 19 March 1998)
cabinet: Council of Ministers
appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime
minister
elections: president elected by
an electoral college consisting of elected members of both
houses of Parliament and the legislatures of the states for a
five-year term; election last held 14 July 1997 (next to be
held NA July 2002); vice president elected by both houses of
Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 16 August
1997 (next to be held NA August 2002); prime minister elected
by parliamentary members of the majority party following
legislative elections; election last held NA October 1999
(next to be held NA October 2004)
election
results: Kocheril Raman NARAYANAN elected president;
percent of electoral college vote - NA%; Krishnan KANT elected
vice president; percent of Parliament vote - NA%; Atal Behari
VAJPAYEE elected prime minister; percent of vote - NA%
|
| Legislative
branch: |
bicameral Parliament or Sansad consists of
the Council of States or Rajya Sabha (a body consisting of not
more than 250 members, up to 12 of which are appointed by the
president, the remainder are chosen by the elected members of
the state and territorial assemblies; members serve six-year
terms) and the People's Assembly or Lok Sabha (545 seats; 543
elected by popular vote, 2 appointed by the president; members
serve five-year terms)
elections: People's Assembly -
last held 5 September through 3 October 1999 (next to be held
NA 2004)
election results: People's
Assembly - percent of vote by party - BJP alliance 40.8%,
Congress alliance 33.8%, other 25.4%; seats by party - BJP
alliance 304, Congress alliance 134, other 107
|
| Judicial
branch: |
Supreme Court (judges are appointed by the
president and remain in office until they reach the age of 65)
|
| Political parties
and leaders: |
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
or AIADMK [C. Jayalalitha JAYARAM]; All India Forward Bloc or
AIFB [Prem Dutta PALIWAL (chairman), Chitta BASU (general
secretary)]; Asom Gana Parishad [Prafulla Kumar MAHANTA];
Bahujan Samaj Party or BSP [Kanshi RAM]; Bharatiya Janata
Party or BJP [Bangaru LAXMAN, president]; Biju Janata Dal or
BJD [Naveen PATNAIK]; Communist Party of India or CPI
[Ardhendu Bhushan BARDHAN]; Communist Party of
India/Marxist-Leninist or CPI/ML [Vinod MISHRA]; Congress (I)
Party [Sonia GANDHI, president]; Dravida Munnetra Kazagham or
DMK (a regional party in Tamil Nadu) [M. KARUNANIDHI]; Indian
National League [Suliaman SAIT]; Janata Dal (Secular) [H. D.
Deve GOWDA]; Janata Dal (United) or JDU [Sharad YADAV,
president, I. K. GUJRAL]; Kerala Congress (Mani faction) [K.
M. MANI]; Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam or MDMK
[VAIKO]; Muslim League [G. M. BANATWALA]; Nationalist Congress
Party or NCP [Sharad PAWAR]; National Democratic Alliance, a
16-party alliance including BJP, DMK, Janata Dal (U), SHS,
Shiromani Akali Dal, Telugu Desam, BJD, Rinamool Congress];
Rashtriya Janata Dal or RJD [Laloo Prasad YADAV];
Revolutionary Socialist Party or RSP [Tridip CHOWDHURY];
Samajwadi Party or SP [Mulayam Singh YADAV, president];
Shiromani Akali Dal [Prakash Singh BADAL]; Shiv Sena [Bal
THACKERAY]; Tamil Maanila Congress [G. K. MOOPANAR]; Telugu
Desam Party or TDP (a regional party in Andhra Pradesh)
[Chandrababu NAIDU]; Trinamool Congress [Mamata BANERJEE]
|
| Political pressure
groups and leaders: |
numerous religious or
militant/chauvinistic organizations, including Vishwa Hindu
Parishad, Bajrang Dal, and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh;
various separatist groups seeking greater communal and/or
regional autonomy, including the All Parties Hurriyat
Conference |
| International
organization participation: |
AfDB, ARF (dialogue partner), AsDB, ASEAN
(dialogue partner), BIS, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G- 6, G-15,
G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA
(observer), IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat,
Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MINURSO,
MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, PCA, SAARC, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMEE, UNMIBH,
UNMIK, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
|
| Diplomatic
representation in the US: |
chief of
mission: Ambassador Naresh CHANDRA
chancery: 2107 Massachusetts
Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008; note - Embassy located at
2536 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-7000
FAX: [1] (202) 483-3972
consulate(s) general: Chicago,
Houston, New York, and San Francisco
|
| Diplomatic
representation from the US: |
chief of
mission: Ambassador Robert D. BLACKWILL (nominated
Mar. 2001)
embassy: Shantipath,
Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110021
mailing
address: use embassy street address
telephone: [91] (11) 419-8000
FAX: [91] (11) 419-0017
consulate(s) general: Chennai
(Madras), Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai (Bombay)
|
| Flag
description: |
three equal horizontal bands of orange
(top), white, and green with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel)
centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Niger,
which has a small orange disk centered in the white band
|
| Economy -
overview: |
India's economy encompasses traditional
village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range
of modern industries, and a multitude of support services.
More than a third of the population is too poor to be able to
afford an adequate diet. India's international payments
position remained strong in 2000 with adequate foreign
exchange reserves, moderately depreciating nominal exchange
rates, and booming exports of software services. Growth in
manufacturing output slowed, and electricity shortages
continue in many regions. |
| GDP: |
purchasing power parity - $2.2 trillion
(2000 est.) |
| GDP - real growth
rate: |
6% (2000 est.) |
| GDP - per
capita: |
purchasing power parity - $2,200 (2000
est.) |
| GDP - composition
by sector: |
agriculture: 25%
industry: 24%
services: 51% (2000)
|
| Population below
poverty line: |
35% (1994 est.)
|
| Household income or
consumption by percentage share: |
lowest
10%: 3.5%
highest
10%: 33.5% (1997) |
| Inflation rate
(consumer prices): |
5.4% (2000 est.)
|
| Labor force - by
occupation: |
agriculture 67%, services 18%, industry
15% (1995 est.) |
| Budget: |
revenues:
$44.3 billion
expenditures: $73.6 billion,
including capital expenditures of $NA (FY00/01 est.)
|
| Industries: |
textiles, chemicals, food processing,
steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum,
machinery, software |
| Industrial
production growth rate: |
7.5% (2000 est.)
|
| Electricity -
production: |
454.561 billion kWh (1999)
|
| Electricity -
production by source: |
fossil
fuel: 79.41%
hydro:
17.77%
nuclear: 2.52%
other: 0.3% (1999)
|
| Electricity -
consumption: |
424.032 billion kWh (1999)
|
| Electricity -
exports: |
200 million kWh (1999)
|
| Electricity -
imports: |
1.49 billion kWh (1999)
|
| Agriculture -
products: |
rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea,
sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats,
poultry; fish |
| Exports: |
$43.1 billion (f.o.b., 2000)
|
| Exports -
commodities: |
textile goods, gems and jewelry,
engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactures
|
| Exports -
partners: |
US 22%, UK 6%, Germany 5%, Japan 5%, Hong
Kong 5%, UAE 4% (1999) |
| Imports: |
$60.8 billion (f.o.b., 2000)
|
| Imports -
commodities: |
crude oil, machinery, gems, fertilizer,
chemicals |
| Imports -
partners: |
US 9%, Benelux 8%, UK 6%, Saudi Arabia 6%,
Japan 6%, Germany 5% (1999) |
| Debt -
external: |
$99.6 billion (2000)
|
| Economic aid -
recipient: |
$2.9 billion (FY98/99)
|
| Currency: |
Indian rupee (INR)
|
| Exchange
rates: |
Indian rupees per US dollar - 46.540
(January 2001), 44.942 (2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998),
36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996) |
| Fiscal
year: |
1 April - 31 March
|
| Telephones - main
lines in use: |
27.7 million (October 2000)
|
| Telephones - mobile
cellular: |
2.93 million (November 2000)
|
| Telephone
system: |
general
assessment: mediocre service; local and long
distance service provided throughout all regions of the
country, with services primarily concentrated in the urban
areas; major objective is to continue to expand and modernize
long-distance network in order to keep pace with rapidly
growing number of local subscriber lines; steady improvement
is taking place with the recent admission of private and
private-public investors, but, with telephone density at about
two for each 100 persons and a waiting list of over 2 million,
demand for main line telephone service will not be satisfied
for a very long time
domestic:
local service is provided by microwave radio relay and coaxial
cable, with open wire and obsolete electromechanical and
manual switchboard systems still in use in rural areas;
starting in the 1980s, a substantial amount of digital switch
gear has been introduced for local and long-distance service;
long-distance traffic is carried mostly by coaxial cable and
low-capacity microwave radio relay; since 1985 significant
trunk capacity has been added in the form of fiber-optic cable
and a domestic satellite system with 254 earth stations;
mobile cellular service is provided in four metropolitan
cities
international: satellite earth
stations - 8 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Indian
Ocean region); nine gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai
(Bombay), New Delhi, Kolkata (Calcutta), Chennai (Madras),
Jalandhar, Kanpur, Gaidhinagar, Hyderabad, and Ernakulam; 4
submarine cables - LOCOM linking Chennai (Madras) to Penang;
Indo-UAE-Gulf cable linking Mumbai (Bombay) to Al Fujayrah,
UAE; India-SEA-ME-WE-3, SEA-ME-WE-2 with landing sites at
Cochin and Mumbai (Bombay); Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe
(FLAG) with landing site at Mumbai (Bombay) (2000)
|
| Radio broadcast
stations: |
AM 153, FM 91, shortwave 68 (1998)
|
| Radios: |
116 million (1997)
|
| Television
broadcast stations: |
562 (of which 82 stations have 1 kW or
greater power and 480 stations have less than 1 kW of power)
(1997) |
| Televisions: |
63 million (1997)
|
| Internet country
code: |
.in |
| Internet Service
Providers (ISPs): |
43 (2000) |
| Internet
users: |
4.5 million (2000)
|
| Railways: |
total:
63,693 km (13,771 km electrified)
broad
gauge: 45,103 km 1.676-m gauge
narrow gauge: 15,178 km 1.000-m
gauge; 3,105 km 0.762-m gauge; 307 km 0.610-m gauge (2001)
|
| Highways: |
total:
3,319,644 km
paved:
1,517,077 km
unpaved:
1,802,567 km (1996) |
| Waterways: |
16,180 km
note:
3,631 km navigable by large vessels
|
| Pipelines: |
crude oil 3,005 km; petroleum products
2,687 km; natural gas 1,700 km (1995)
|
| Ports and
harbors: |
Chennai (Madras), Cochin, Jawaharal Nehru,
Kandla, Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai (Bombay), Vishakhapatnam
|
| Merchant
marine: |
total:
315 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,433,831
GRT/10,691,973 DWT
ships by
type: bulk 117, cargo 70, chemical tanker 15,
combination bulk 1, combination ore/oil 3, container 15,
liquefied gas 9, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 76,
short-sea passenger 2, specialized tanker 2 (2000 est.)
|
| Airports: |
337 (2000 est.)
|
| Airports - with
paved runways: |
total:
235
over 3,047 m: 13
2,438 to 3,047 m: 48
1,524 to 2,437 m: 81
914 to 1,523 m: 77
under 914 m: 16 (2000 est.)
|
| Airports - with
unpaved runways: |
total:
102
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 6
914 to 1,523 m: 40
under 914 m: 55 (2000 est.)
|
| Heliports: |
16 (2000 est.) |
| Military
branches: |
Army, Navy (including naval air arm), Air
Force, various security or paramilitary forces (includes
Border Security Force, Assam Rifles, Rashtriya Rifles, and
National Security Guards) |
| Military manpower -
military age: |
17 years of age
|
| Military manpower -
availability: |
males age
15-49: 280,204,502 (2001 est.)
|
| Military manpower -
fit for military service: |
males age
15-49: 164,410,461 (2001 est.)
|
| Military manpower -
reaching military age annually: |
males:
10,879,384 (2001 est.) |
| Military
expenditures - dollar figure: |
$13.02 billion (FY01)
|
| Military
expenditures - percent of GDP: |
2.5% (FY00) |
| Disputes -
international: |
boundary with China in dispute; status of
Kashmir with Pakistan; water-sharing problems with Pakistan
over the Indus River (Wular Barrage); a portion of the
boundary with Bangladesh is indefinite; exchange of 151
enclaves along border with Bangladesh subject to ratification
by Indian parliament; dispute with Bangladesh over New
Moore/South Talpatty Island |
| Illicit
drugs: |
world's largest producer of licit opium
for the pharmaceutical trade, but an undetermined quantity of
opium is diverted to illicit international drug markets;
transit country for illicit narcotics produced in neighboring
countries; illicit producer of hashish and methaqualone
|
Background Note: India (SOURCE: U.S. Department
of State)
PROFILE
OFFICIAL NAME:
Republic of India
Geography
Area: 3.3 million sq. km. (1.3 million sq. mi.);
about one-third the size of the U.S.
Cities:
Capital--New Delhi (pop. 11 million). Other major cities--Mumbai, formerly Bombay
(15 million); Calcutta (12 million); Chennai, formerly Madras (6
million); Bangalore (5 million); Hyderabad (5 million); Ahmedabad
(3.7 million).
Terrain: Varies from
Himalayas to flat river valleys.
Climate:
Temperate to subtropical monsoon.
People
Nationality:
Noun and adjective--Indian(s).
Population (1999 est.): one billion; urban
32%.
Annual growth rate: 1.8%.
Density: 311/sq. km.
Ethnic groups: Indo-Aryan 72%, Dravidian 25%,
Mongoloid 2%, others. Religions: Hindu 81.3%, Muslim 12%, Christian
2.3%, Sikh 1.9%, other groups including Buddhist, Jain, Parsi
2.5%.
Languages: Hindi, English, and 16 other
official languages.
Education: Years compulsory--9 (to age 14). Literacy--54%. Health: Infant mortality rate--71/1,000. Life expectancy--63 years.
Work force (est.): 416 million. Agriculture--63%; industry and commerce--22%; services and government--11%; transport and communications--4%.
Government
Type:
Federal republic.
Independence: August 15,
1947.
Constitution: January 26, 1950.
Branches: Executive--president (chief of state), prime
minister (head of government), Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative--bicameral parliament (Rajya
Sabha or Council of States and Lok Sabha or House of the People). Judicial--Supreme Court.
Political parties: Bharatiya Janata Party,
Congress (I), Janata Dal (United), Communist Party of India,
Communist Party of India-Marxist, and numerous regional and small
national parties.
Political subdivisions: 25
states,* 7 union territories.
Suffrage:
Universal over 18.
Economy
GDP: $390
billion.
Real growth rate (1998-99): 6.8%.
Per capita GDP: $420.
Natural resources: Coal, iron ore, manganese,
mica, bauxite, chromite, thorium, limestone, barite, titanium ore,
diamonds, crude oil.
Agriculture (25% of
GDP): Products--wheat, rice, coarse
grains, oilseeds, sugar, cotton, jute, tea.
Industry (29% of GDP): Products--textiles, jute, processed food,
steel, machinery, transport equipment, cement, aluminum,
fertilizers, mining, petroleum, chemicals, computer software.
Trade: Exports--$34
billion: agricultural products, engineering goods, precious stones,
cotton apparel and fabrics, handicrafts, tea.
Imports--$42 billion:
petroleum, machinery and transport equipment, edible oils,
fertilizer, jewelry, iron and steel. Major
trade partners--U.S., EU, Russia, Japan, Iraq, Iran, central and
eastern Europe.
PEOPLE
Although
India occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over
15% of the world's population. Only China has a larger population.
Almost 40% of Indians are younger than 15 years of age. About 70% of
the people live in more than 550,000 villages, and the remainder in
more than 200 towns and cities. Over thousands of years of its
history, India has been invaded from the Iranian plateau, Central
Asia, Arabia, Afghanistan, and the West; Indian people and culture
have absorbed and changed these influences to produce a remarkable
racial and cultural synthesis.
Religion, caste, and language are major
determinants of social and political organization in India today.
The government has recognized 18 languages as official; Hindi is the
most widely spoken.
Although
83% of the people are Hindu, India also is the home of more than 120
million Muslims--one of the world's largest Muslim populations. The
population also includes Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, and
Parsis.
The
caste system reflects Indian occupational and religiously defined
hierarchies. Traditionally, there are four broad categories of
castes (varnas), including a category of outcastes, earlier called
"untouchables" but now commonly referred to as "dalits." Within
these broad categories there are thousands of castes and subcastes ,
whose relative status varies from region to region. Despite economic
modernization and laws countering discrimination against the lower
end of the class structure, the caste system remains an important
source of social identification for most Hindus and a potent factor
in the political life of the country.
HISTORY
The people of India
have had a continuous civilization since 2500 B.C., when the
inhabitants of the Indus River valley developed an urban culture
based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. This
civilization declined around 1500 B.C., probably due to ecological
changes.
During
the second millennium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking tribes migrated
from the northwest into the subcontinent. As they settled in the
middle Ganges River valley, they adapted to antecedent cultures.
The
political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad
kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries
A.D., northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During
this period, known as India's Golden Age, Hindu culture and
political administration reached new heights.
Islam
spread across the subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the
10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and
established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century,
descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and
established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years.
From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by
Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two
systems--the prevailing Hindu and Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting
cultural influences on each other.
The
first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat
on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the East India
Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and
Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers.
The
British expanded their influence from these footholds until, by the
1850s, they controlled most of present-day India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh. In 1857, a rebellion in north India led by mutinous
Indian soldiers caused the British Parliament to transfer all
political power from the East India Company to the Crown. Great
Britain began administering most of India directly while controlling
the rest through treaties with local rulers.
In the
late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in
British India with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise
the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils
with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation
in legislative councils. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mohandas
K. Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party
into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The
party used both parliamentary and nonviolent resistance and
noncooperation to achieve independence.
On
August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth,
with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. Enmity between Hindus and
Muslims led the British to partition British India, creating East
and West Pakistan, where there were Muslim majorities. India became
a republic within the Commonwealth after promulgating its
constitution on January 26, 1950.
After
independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and
Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and
then his daughter and grandson, with the exception of two brief
periods in the 1970s and 1980s.
Prime
Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. He was
succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966,
power passed to Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister from
1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic
problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended
many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her
policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by
Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five
opposition parties.
In 1979,
Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim
government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi's return to power in
January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and
her son, Rajiv, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party
to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by
allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then
Chandra Shekhar.
In the
1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in
the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to
form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of
opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of
the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and
the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in
November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period
by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), with
Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed,
resulting in national elections in June 1991.
On May
27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I),
Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Tamil extremists from
Sri Lanka. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary
seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the
leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government,
which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of
economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian
economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics
also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and
ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based
political parties.
The
final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were
marred by several major political corruption scandals, which
contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party
in its history. The Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest
party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a
majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal
Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all
political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a
14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a
government known as the United Front, under the former Chief
Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government lasted less
than a year, as the leader of the Congress Party withdrew his
support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the
consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front
coalition.
In
November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support for the
United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the
largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a
majority. On March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led
coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister.
On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of
underground nuclear tests forcing U.S. President Clinton to impose
economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear
Proliferation Prevention Act.
In April
1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh
elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance-a new
coalition led by the BJP-gained a majority to form the government
with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999.
GOVERNMENT
According
to its constitution, India is a "sovereign, socialist, secular,
democratic republic." Like the United States, India has a federal
form of government. However, the central government in India has
greater power in relation to its states, and its central government
is patterned after the British parliamentary system.
The
government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of
the president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president
and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a
special electoral college. Their terms are staggered, and the vice
president does not automatically become president following the
death or removal from office of the president.
Real
national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers
(cabinet), led by the prime minister. The president appoints the
prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political
party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The
president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the
prime minister.
India's
bicameral parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States)
and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is
responsible to the Lok Sabha.
The
legislatures of the states and union territories elect 233 members
to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12. The
elected members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with
one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of
545 members; 543 are directly elected to 5-year terms. The other two
are appointed.
India's
independent judicial system began under the British, and its
concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The
Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all
appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister.
India
has 25 states* and 7 union territories. At the state level, some of
the legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of
the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible
to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is
responsible to parliament.
Each
state also has a presidentially appointed governor who may assume
certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The
central government exerts greater control over the union territories
than over the states, although some territories have gained more
power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India
have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States.
Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village
councils, or panchayats, which aim to promote popular democratic
participation at the village level, where much of the population
still lives.
Principal Government Officials
President--Kocheril Raman Narayanan
Vice President--Krishan Kant
Prime Minister--Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Minister of External Affairs-Jaswant Singh
Minister of State (External Affairs)-Ajit Kumar
Panja
Ambassador to the U.S.--Naresh
Chandra
Ambassador to the UN--Kamalesh Sharma
India
maintains an embassy in the United States at 2107 Massachusetts
Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-939-7000, fax
202-265-4351, email indembwash@indiagov.org) and consulates general
in New York, Chicago, Houston, and San Francisco.
POLITICAL
CONDITIONS
Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee took office
in October 1999 after a general election in which a BJP-led
coalition of 13 parties called the National Democratic Alliance
emerged with an absolute majority. The coalition reflects the
ongoing transition in Indian politics away from the historically
dominant and national-based Congress Party toward smaller,
narrower-based regional parties. This process has been underway
throughout much of the past decade and is likely to continue in the
future.
The
Bharatiya Janata Party emerged as the single-largest party in the
Lok Sabha (lower house of Parliament) elections in September 1999.
The BJP currently leads a coalition government under Prime Minister
A.B. Vajpayee. Party President Kushabhau Thakre was elected by the
Party National Executive in April 1998. The Hindu-nationalist BJP
draws its political strength mainly from the "Hindi belt" in the
northern and western regions of India. The party holds power in the
states of Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh (in coalition with several small
parties), Himachal Pradesh (in coalition with Himachal Vikas
Congress) Punjab (in coalition with Akali Dal) and in Haryana (in
coalition with the Indian National Lok Dal). Popularly viewed as the
party of the upper caste and trading communities, the BJP has made
strong inroads into the lower caste vote bank in recent national and
state assembly elections.
The
Congress (I) Party, led by Sonia Gandhi (widow of the late Prime
Minister Rajiv Gandhi), holds the second-largest number of seats in
the Lok Sabha. Priding itself as a secular, centrist party, the
Congress has been the historically dominant political party in
India. Its performance in national elections has steadily declined
during the last decade. The Congress still rules in the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra (in coalition with the
National Congress Party), Karnataka, and three of the smaller states
in the northeast. The political fortunes of the Congress have
suffered badly as major groups in its traditional vote bank have
been lost to emerging regional and caste-based parties, such as the
Bahujan Samaj Party and the Samajwadi Party.
The
Janata Dal (United) Party claims to be a national party but
currently holds significant strength only in Karnataka and Bihar. It
advocates a secular and socialist ideology and draws much of its
popular support from Muslims, lower castes, and tribals.
ECONOMY
India's
population continues to grow at about 1.8% per year and is estimated
at one billion. While its GDP is low in dollar terms, India has the
world's 13th-largest GNP. About 62% of the population depends
directly on agriculture.
Industry
and services sectors are growing in importance and account for 26%
and 48% of GDP, respectively, while agriculture contributes about
25.6% of GDP. More than 35% of the population live below the poverty
line, but a large and growing middle class of 150-200 million has
disposable income for consumer goods.
India
embarked on a series of economic reforms in 1991 in reaction to a
severe foreign exchange crisis. Those reforms have included
liberalized foreign investment and exchange regimes, significant
reductions in tariffs and other trade barriers, reform and
modernization of the financial sector, and significant adjustments
in government monetary and fiscal policies.
The
reform process has had some very beneficial effects on the Indian
economy, including higher growth rates, lower inflation, and
significant increases in foreign investment. Real GDP growth was
6.8% in 1998-99, up from 5% in the 1997-98 fiscal year. Growth in
1999-2000 is expected to be around 6%. Foreign portfolio and direct
investment flows have risen significantly since reforms began in
1991 and have contributed to healthy foreign currency reserves ($32
billion in February 2000) and a moderate current account deficit of
about 1% (1998-99). India's economic growth is constrained, however,
by inadequate infrastructure, cumbersome bureaucratic procedures,
and high real interest rates. India will have to address these
constraints in formulating its economic policies and by pursuing the
second generation reforms to maintain recent trends in economic
growth.
India's
trade has increased significantly since reforms began in 1991,
largely as a result of staged tariff reductions and elimination of
nontariff barriers. The outlook for further trade liberalization is
mixed. India has agreed to eliminate quantitative restrictions on
imports of about 1,420 consumer goods by April 2001 to meet its WTO
commitments. On the other hand, the government has imposed
"additional" import duties of 5% on most products plus a surcharge
of 10% over the past 2 years. The U.S. is India's largest trading
partner; bilateral trade in 1998-99 was about $10.9 billion.
Principal U.S. exports to India are aircraft and parts, advanced
machinery, fertilizers, ferrous waste and scrap metal, and computer
hardware. Major U.S. imports from India include textiles and
ready-made garments, agricultural and related products, gems and
jewelry, leather products, and chemicals.
Significant liberalization of its investment
regime since 1991 has made India an attractive place for foreign
direct and portfolio investment. The U.S. is India's largest
investment partner, with total inflow of U.S. direct investment
estimated at $2 billion (market value) in 1999. U.S. investors also
have provided an estimated 11% of the $18 billion of foreign
portfolio investment that has entered India since 1992. Proposals
for direct foreign investment are considered by the Foreign
Investment Promotion Board and generally receive government
approval. Automatic approvals are available for investments
involving up to 100% foreign equity, depending on the kind of
industry. Foreign investment is particularly sought after in power
generation, telecommunications, ports, roads, petroleum exploration
and processing, and mining.
India's
external debt was up to $98 billion in March 1999, compared to $94
billion in March 1998. The country's debt service ratio has fallen
to about 20%. Bilateral assistance has been about $1 billion
annually in recent years, with the U.S. providing about $150 million
in development assistance in Fiscal Year 1999. The World Bank had
approved loans worth about $1.05 billion for India in 1999.
FOREIGN
RELATIONS
India's size, population, and strategic location
give it a prominent voice in international affairs, and its growing
industrial base, military strength, and scientific and technical
capacity give it added weight. It collaborates closely with other
developing countries on issues from trade to environmental
protection. The end of the Cold War dramatically affected Indian
foreign policy. India remains a leader of the developing world and
the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and hosted the NAM Heads of State
Summit in 1997. India is now also seeking to strengthen its
political and commercial ties with the United States, Japan, the
European Union, Iran, China, and the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations. India is an active member of the South Asia Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Indian Ocean Rim Association
for Regional Cooperation (IORARC).
India
has always been an active member of the United Nations and now seeks
a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. India has a long
tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping operations and most
recently contributed personnel to UN operations in Somalia,
Cambodia, Mozambique, Kuwait, Bosnia, Angola, and El Salvador.
Bilateral and Regional Relations
Pakistan. India's
relations with Pakistan are influenced by the centuries-old rivalry
between Hindus and Muslims which led to partition of British India
in 1947. The principal source of contention has been Kashmir, whose
Hindu Maharaja chose in 1947 to join India, although a majority of
his subjects were Muslim. India maintains that his decision and the
subsequent elections in Kashmir have made it an integral part of
India. Pakistan asserts Kashmiris' rights to self-determination
through a plebiscite in accordance with an earlier Indian pledge and
a UN resolution. This dispute triggered wars between the two
countries in 1947 and 1965.
In
December 1971, following a political crisis in what was then East
Pakistan and the flight of millions of Bengali refugees to India,
Pakistan and India again went to war. The brief conflict left the
situation largely unchanged in the west, where the two armies
reached an impasse, but a decisive Indian victory in the east
resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
Since
the 1971 war, Pakistan and India have made only slow progress toward
normalization of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto met in the
Indian hill station of Simla. They signed an agreement by which
India would return all personnel and captured territory in the west
and the two countries would "settle their differences by peaceful
means through bilateral negotiations." Diplomatic and trade
relations were re-established in 1976.
After
the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, new strains appeared in
India-Pakistan relations; Pakistan supported the Afghan resistance,
while India implicitly supported Soviet occupation. In the following
eight years, India voiced increasing concern over Pakistani arms
purchases, U.S. military aid to Pakistan, and Pakistan's nuclear
weapons program. In an effort to curtail tensions, the two countries
formed a joint commission. In December 1988, Prime Ministers Rajiv
Gandhi and Benazir Bhutto concluded a pact not to attack each
other's nuclear facilities. Agreements on cultural exchanges and
civil aviation also were initiated.
In 1997,
high-level Indo-Pakistani talks resumed after a 3-year pause. The
Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan met twice and the foreign
secretaries conducted three rounds of talks. In June 1997, the
foreign secretaries identified eight "outstanding issues" around
which continuing talks would be focused. The dispute over the status
of Jammu and Kashmir, an issue since partition, remains the major
stumbling block in their dialogue. India maintains that the entire
former princely state is an integral part of the Indian union, while
Pakistan insists that UN resolutions calling for self-determination
of the people of the state must be taken into account.
In
September 1997, the talks broke down over the structure of how to
deal with the issues of Kashmir and peace and security. Pakistan
advocated that the issues be treated by separate working groups.
India responded that the two issues be taken up along with six
others on a simultaneous basis. In May 1998 India, and then
Pakistan, conducted nuclear tests. Attempts to restart dialogue
between the two nations were given a major boost by the February
1999 meeting of both Prime Ministers in Lahore and their signing of
three agreements. These efforts have since been stalled by the
intrusion of Pakistani-backed forces into Indian-held territory near
Kargil in May 1999, and by the military coup in Pakistan that
overturned the Nawaz Sharif government in October the same year.
SAARC. Certain aspects of India's relations
within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asia
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members are
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture,
rural development, science and technology, culture, health,
population control, narcotics, and terrorism.
SAARC
has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided more
divisive political issues, although political dialogue is often
conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its
SAARC partners signed an agreement gradually to lower tariffs within
the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill
because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC
Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has
not been rescheduled.
China. Despite suspicions remaining from the
1962 border conflict between India and China and continuing
territorial/boundary disputes, Sino-Indian relations have improved
gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions
along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize
relations.
A series
of high-level visits between the two nations has helped to improve
relations. In December 1996, Chinese President Jiang Zemin visited
India on a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed, with
the Indian Prime Minister, a series of confidence-building measures
along the disputed border, including troop reductions and weapons
limitations.
Sino-Indian relations received a setback in May
1998 when India justified its nuclear tests by citing potential
threats from China. These accusations followed criticism of Chinese
"aggressive actions" in Pakistan and Burma by Indian Defense
Minister George Fernandes. However, in June 1999, during the Kargil
crisis, External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and
stated that India did not consider China a threat. Relations between
India and China are on the mend, and the two sides handled the move
from Tibet to India of the Karmapa Lama in January 2000 with
delicacy and tact.
New
Independent States of the Former Soviet Union. The collapse of the
Soviet Union and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy.
Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the
Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply
relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over
financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier
of military systems and spare parts.
Russia
and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and
Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a
more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian President
Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new
relationship. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as
has discussion of major defense purchases.
DEFENSE
Supreme command of
India's armed forces--the third-largest in the world-- rests with
the president, but actual responsibility for national defense lies
with the cabinet committee for political affairs under the
chairmanship of the prime minister. The minister of defense is
responsible to parliament for all defense matters. India's military
command structure has no joint defense staff or unified command
apparatus. The ministry of defense provides administrative and
operational control over the three services through their respective
chiefs of staff. The armed forces have always been loyal to
constitutional authority and maintain a tradition of non-involvement
in political affairs.
The army
numbers about 1.1 million personnel and fields 34 divisions.
Designed primarily to defend the country's frontiers, the army has
become heavily committed to internal security duties in Kashmir and
the Northeast.
The navy
is much smaller, but it is relatively well-armed among Indian Ocean
navies, operating one aircraft carrier, 41 surface combatants, and
18 submarines. The fleet is aging, and replacement of ships and
aircraft has not been adequately funded. India's coast guard is
small and is organized along the lines of the U.S. Coast Guard. With
India's long coastline and extensive Exclusive Economic Zone, the
navy and coast guard work hard to patrol the waters dictated by
India's economic and strategic interests.
The air
force, the world's fourth largest, has over 600 combat aircraft and
more than 500 transports and helicopters. The air force takes pride
in its ability to fly low and fast, as well as to operate in the
extremes of temperature and altitude ranging from the Thar Desert to
the Siachen Glacier. The air force has enhanced the capability of
its fighter force with the addition of the multi-role Sukhoi 30, and
it hopes to replace much of its Mig-21 fleet with the indigenous
Light Combat Aircraft currently under development.
U.S.-INDIA
RELATIONS
India's nuclear tests in May 1998 seriously
damaged Indo-American relations. President Clinton imposed
wideranging sanctions pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation
Prevention Act. The United States encouraged India to sign the
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) immediately and without
condition. The U.S. also called for restraint in missile and nuclear
testing and deployment in both India and Pakistan. The
nonproliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has
bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries.
However, India has yet to sign the CTBT, agree to a fissile material
production moratorium, or define its intentions on acquiring a
nuclear deterrent clearly. U.S. sanctions on Indian entities
involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international
financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects
in India remain sources of friction.
Principal U.S. Embassy Officials
Ambassador--Richard F. Celeste
Deputy Chief of Mission--E. Ashley Wills
Public Affairs--Francis B. Ward
Political Affairs-Robert K. Boggs
Economic and Scientific Affairs--Alice A.
Dress
Commercial Affairs--Carol M. Kim
Agricultural Affairs--Waylon M. Beeghly
Administrative Affairs--Peter W. Bodde
Consular Affairs-John R. Nay
USAID Mission, Director--Linda E. Morse
Consuls General
Mumbai (formerly Bombay)--David P. Good
Calcutta--Chris J. Sandrolini
Chennai (formerly Madras)--Bernard J. Alter
The U.S.
embassy in India is located on Shantipath, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi
110021 (tel. 91-11-419-8000) (fax: 91-11-4190017). Embassy and
consulate working hours are Monday to Friday, 8:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m.
Visa application hours are Monday to Friday, 8:30 a.m. to 10:00 a.m.
*This
number includes the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The United
States considers all of the former princely state of Kashmir to be
disputed territory. India, Pakistan, and China each control parts of
Kashmir.
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